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Gravity waves can occur above and in the outflow region of convection, including also Kelvin Helmholts -Helmholtz instability.

Fig8.1.14-4: IFS forecast CAT chart (top) and satellite visible imagery (bottom) illustrating violent turbulence encountered by an inter-continental flight 21 May 2024. The aircraft suffered strong descents and ascents over a short period of time necessitating an emergency diversion. The aircraft might have encountered strong convective draughts, but there are numerous studies and literature about gravity waves above and in the outflow region of convection, including also Kelvin Helmholts -Helmholtz instability.  The CAT forecast indicated local strong to severe turbulence (>0.3m2/3 s-1) but it is unclear which effects were the stronger factors.  Kelvin Helmholts -Helmholtz instability above deep active convection is considered more likely.

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