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  • smooth true orography, particularly in rugged mountainous areas where there are large variations in altitude over short distances.  Mountain peaks may be under-represented and narrow valleys may not be represented at all. See example at Fig9.2.1-5 in orography effects.
  • local effects can be under-identified where there are small scale variations in true or model orography, even where relatively low in altitude. 
  • lead to "topographic ripples" over adjacent sea/large lakes, which decay with offshore distance, and which are most prominent where there are steep-sided high mountains nearby.

See also also selection of grid points for meteograms and model representation of orography.

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