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  • first step: compare grid point average to observation area average.  The systematic errors are then due to model shortcomings; the non-systematic errors stem from synoptic phase and intensity errors.
  • second step: compare the systematic errors between observation average and point observation.  The  The systematic errors come from station representativeness station representativeness (i.e. the location, height and aspect of the observation) and the .  The non-systematic errors come from sub-grid scale variability.

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